vulnera
The International Observatory on Vulnerable People in Data Protection
The Mission of the Observatory
The International Observatory on Vulnerable People in Data Protection (Vulnera) is a research dissemination and networking platform focusing on the multifaceted connotations that the notion of human ‘vulnerability’ may assume in the data protection and privacy domains. Established under the Brussels Privacy Hub and Future of Privacy Forum Europe, the Observatory absolves primarily two functions:
Research and Education
By documenting a wide variety of resources, ranging from academic works to policy documents and judgments, arranged in thematic sections, tackling the vulnerabilities of people in data processing from different points of view (e.g., within the processing or as an outcome of the data processing; depending on gender, age, sexual orientation, the status of migrant, etc.).
Dissemination
By creating a multidisciplinary network of researchers, practitioners, public officials and activists with complementary expertise in order to promote a debate (through events, webinars, conferences, research projects) towards a common and deeper understanding of the factors affecting the vulnerability of individuals and groups in the digital world. Among our goals is to strengthen the involvement of civil society in academic research by facilitating the contacts between researchers and human rights activists and organisations.
Executive Team
Gianclaudio Malgieri
Scientific Coordinator
Gabriela Zanfir-Fortuna
Scientific Coordinator
Katerina Demetzou
Managing Co-Director
Alessandra Calvi
Managing Co-Director
Dila Ay
Assistant
Wenkai Li
Resources Contributor
scientific network
Resources
Disclaimer: The resources are arranged per thematic sections to facilitate the consultation. However, we are aware of the intersections and overlaps thereof. We are also aware that pre-identifying categories of vulnerable people in data processing is not possible, vulnerability being a largely contextual and elusive concept. We are not claiming to be exhaustive, but to initiate a discussion.
Do you have any suggestions as to how improve the repository? Have you come across any resource that should be included in the repository? Contact us.
Theories of vulnerability
Academic writings
Albertson Fineman, M. (2021). Universality, Vulnerability, And Collective Responsibility. Les ateliers de l’éthique. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3869039
Asquith, N. L., Bartkowiak-Théron, I., & Roberts, K. A. (2017). Policing encounters with vulnerability. Springer. https://rd.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-51228-0
Cole, A. (2017). All of us are vulnerable, but some are more vulnerable than others: The political ambiguity of vulnerability studies, an ambivalent critique. The Politics of Vulnerability, 110-128. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315180519-8
Cooper, F.R. (2015). Always Already Suspect: Revising Vulnerability Theory. North Carolina Law Review, 93, 1339-1379. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2605151
Luna, F. (2009). Elucidating the Concept of Vulnerability: Layers Not Labels. International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics, 2(1), 121–139. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40339200
Luna, F. (2019). Identifying and evaluating layers of vulnerability – a way forward. Developing World Bioethics, 19, 86 – 95. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.
Malgieri, G., & Niklas, J. (2020). Vulnerable data subjects. Computer Law and Security Review, 37, 105415. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3569808
Vulnerable people in data processing
- Women
Academic writings
Abu-Laban, Y. (2015). Gendering Surveillance Studies: The Empirical and Normative Promise of Feminist Methodology, Surveillance & Society, 13(1), 44-56. https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v13i1.5163
Buolamwini, J. and Gebru, T. (2018). Gender Shades. Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in Commercial Gender Classification, Proceedings of the 1st Conference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency (PMLR), 81, 77-91. https://proceedings.mlr.press/v81/buolamwini18a.html
Carter, L. (2021). Prescripted living: gender stereotypes and data-based surveillance in the UK welfare state. Internet Policy Review, 10(4). https://doi.org/10.14763/2021.4.1593
Hampton, L. M. (2021). Black Feminist Musings on Algorithmic Oppression, Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency. https://doi.org/10.1145/3442188.3445929
Criado-Perez, C. (2019). Invisible Women: Data Bias in a World Designed for Men. https://carolinecriadoperez.com/book/invisible-women/
D’Ignazio, C., & Klein, L. F. (2019). Data Feminism. https://data-feminism.mitpress.mit.edu/
Malgieri, G., & Fuster, G.G. (2021). The Vulnerable Data Subject: A Gendered Data Subject? SSRN Electronic Journal. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3913249
Jarrett, K. (2016). Feminism, labour and digital media: The digital housewife. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 9781315720111
Kadiri, A.P.L. (2021). Data and Afrofuturism: an emancipated subject?. Internet Policy Review, 10(4). https://doi.org/10.14763/2021.4.1597
Ni Loideain, N. & Adams, R. (2018). From Alexa to Siri and the GDPR: The Gendering of Virtual Personal Assistants and the Role of EU Data Protection Law. King’s College London Dickson Poon School of Law Legal Studies Research Paper Series. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3281807
McEwen, K.D. (2018). Self-Tracking Practices and Digital (Re)Productive Labour, Philosophy & Technology 31, 235-251. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-017-0282-2
Peña, P. and Varon, J. (2019). Consent to our Data Bodies. Lessons from feminist theories to enforce data protection. Developed by Coding Rights. Available at: https://codingrights.org/docs/ConsentToOurDataBodies.pdf.
Siapka, A. & Biasin, E. (2021). Bleeding data: the case of fertility and menstruation tracking apps. Internet Policy Review, 10(4). https://doi.org/10.14763/2021.4.1599
Sørum, H., Eg, R., & Presthus, W. (2022). A Gender Perspective on GDPR and Information Privacy. Procedia Computer Science, 196, 175-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2021.12.003
Theilen, J. T. & Baur, A. & Bieker, F. & Ammicht Quinn, R. & Hansen, M. & González Fuster, G. (2021). Feminist data protection: an introduction. Internet Policy Review, 10(4). https://doi.org/10.14763/2021.4.1609
Weinberg, L. (2017). Rethinking Privacy: A Feminist Approach to Privacy Rights after Snowden. Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture, 12(3), 5-20. https://doi.org/10.16997/wpcc.258
European Court of Human Rights
Avram and Others v. Moldova (Third Section) 41588/05 2011 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-105468
Khadija Ismayilova v. Azerbaijan (Fifth Section) 65286/13 and 57270/14) 2019 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-188993
Buturuga v. Romania (Fourth Section) 56867/15 2020 Official Language in French: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-200842 Unofficial English Translation: In pp. 374-376 https://rm.coe.int/new-caselaw-06-2021/1680a2fc58
Policy documents
UNESCO (2020). Artificial intelligence and gender equality: key findings of UNESCO’s Global Dialogue. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000374174
Amnesty International & Access Now (2018). The Toronto Declaration: Protecting the right to equality and non-discrimination in machine learning systems. https://www.torontodeclaration.org/community/creators/
Advisory Committee on equal opportunities for women and men (2020). Opinion on Intersectionality in Gender Equality Laws, Policies and Practices. https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/expert-groups-register/screen/expert-groups/consult?lang=en&groupID=1238
United Nations General Assembly Resolution (2018). The right to privacy in the digital age, https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/73/179
Global Developments
World Wide Web Foundation (2018) Artificial Intelligence: open questions about gender inclusion http://webfoundation.org/docs/2018/06/AI-Gender.pdf
- LGBTQIA+
Academic writings
Beauchamp, T. (2019). Going Stealth. Transgender Politics and U.S. Surveillance Practices. Durham and London: Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv11cw8g8
Bivens, R. (2017). The gender binary will not be deprogrammed: Ten years of coding gender on Facebook, New Media & Society 19(6), 880-898. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444815621527
Cirillo, D., Catuara-Solarz, S., Morey, C. et al. Sex and gender differences and biases in artificial intelligence for biomedicine and healthcare. NPJ Digital Medicine, 3, 81 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-020-0288-5
Fosch-Villaronga, E., Poulsen, A., Søraa, R. A., & Custers, B. H. M. (2021) A little bird told me your gender: Gender inferences in social media. Information Processing & Management. vol. 58 (3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2021.102541
Fosch-Villaronga, E., Poulsen, A., Søraa, R. A., & Custers, B. H. M. (2020) Don’t guess my gender, gurl: The inadvertent impact of gender inferences. BIAS 2020: Bias and Fairness in AI Workshop at the European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases (ECML-PKDD), 14-18 September 2020, online. 95038630 Published paper
Hamidi, F., Scheuerman, M. K., & Branham, S. M. (2018, April). Gender recognition or gender reductionism? The social implications of embedded gender recognition systems. In Proceedings of the 2018 chi conference on human factors in computing systems, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118768299
Keats Citron, D. (2018). Sexual privacy. Yale LJ, 128, 1870. https://openyls.law.yale.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.13051/10382/Citron_q8ew5jjf.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y
Keyes, O. (2018). The misgendering machines: Trans/HCI implications of automatic gender recognition. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 2(CSCW), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1145/3274357
Light, B., Mitchell, P., & Wikström, P. (2018). Big Data, method and the ethics of location: A case study of a hookup app for men who have sex with men. Social Media+ Society, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118768299
MacKee, F. (2016). Social media in gay London: Tinder as an alternative to hook-up apps. Social Media+ Society, 2(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305116662186
Poulsen, A., Fosch-Villaronga, E., & Søraa, R.A. (2020) Queering Machines. https://doi.org/10.1038/
Sriram, N. (2020). Dating Data: LGBT Dating Apps, Data Privacy, and Data Security. U. Ill. JL Tech. & Pol’y, 507. https://illinoisjltp.com/journal/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Sriram_Final.pdf
Guyan, K. (2022) Queer Data – Using Gender, Sex and Sexuality Data for Action https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/
NGO Reports & Articles
Privacy International (2019). From Oppression to Liberation: Reclaiming the Right to Privacy https://privacyinternational.org/report/2457/report-oppression-liberation-reclaiming-right-privacy
Internet Lab (2019). Drag queens and Artificial Intelligence: should computers decide what is ‘toxic’ on the internet? https://internetlab.org.br/en/news/drag-queens-and-artificial-intelligence-should-computers-decide-what-is-toxic-on-the-internet/
Privacy International (2019). Communities at risk: How security fails are endangering the LGBTIQ+ community https://privacyinternational.org/news-analysis/2782/communities-risk-how-security-fails-are-endangering-lbgtiq-community
Case Law
European Court of Human Rights
Beizaras and Levickas v. Lithuania (Second Section) 41288/15 2020 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-200344
Y.T. v. Bulgaria (Fifth Section) 41701/16 2020 Official Language in French: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-203898 Unofficial English Translation: In pp. 379-380 https://rm.coe.int/new-caselaw-06-2021/1680a2fc58
Rana v. Hungary (Fourth Section) 40888/17 2020 https://www.stradalex.com/nl/sl_src_publ_jur_int/document/echr_40888-17
X and Y v. Romania (Fourth Section) 2145/16 and 20607/16 2021 Official Language in French: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-207364 Unofficial English Translation: In pp. 391-393 https://rm.coe.int/new-caselaw-06-2021/1680a2fc58
- Children
Academic writings
Demetzou, K., Böck, L. & and Hanteer, O. (2018) Smart bears don’t talk to strangers: Analysing privacy concerns and technical solutions in smart toys for children. Living in the Internet of Things: Cybersecurity of the IoT – 2018, 2018, pp. 1-7, https://doi.org/10.1049/cp.2018.0005
Dolan, J. (2022). Fundamentals for a Child-Oriented Approach to Data Processing
European Data Protection Law Review, 8 (1), 7-13 https://doi.org/10.21552/edpl/2022/1/4
Lievens, E., van der Hof, S., Liefaard, T., Verdoodt, V., Milkaite, I., & Hannema, T. (2019). ‘Submission to the Committee on the Rights of the Child in View of Their Intention to Draft a General Comment on Children’s Rights in Relation to the Digital Environment. The Child Right to Protection against Economic Exploitation in the Digital World’
Grimes, S. M. (2022). The Politics of Children’s Privacy, European Data Protection Law Review, 8 (1), 14-18 https://doi.org/10.21552/edpl/2022/1/5
Macenaite, M. (2017). From universal towards child-specific protection of the right to privacy online: Dilemmas in the EU General Data Protection Regulation. New Media & Society, 19(5), 765-779 https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816686327
Milkaite, I., & and Lievens, E. (2020). Child-Friendly Transparency of Data Processing in the EU: From Legal Requirements to Platform Policies. Journal of Children and Media 14 (1), 5-21 .https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2019.1701055
Milkaite, I. & Lievens, E. (2018) Towards a Better Protection of Children’s Personal Data Collected by Connected Toys and Devices. (Digital Freedom Fund) https://digitalfreedomfund.org/towards-a-better-protection-of-childrens-personal-data-collected-by-connected-toys-and-devices/
Milkaite, I., & Lievens, E. (2010). Children’s Rights to Privacy and Data Protection around the World: Challenges in the Digital Realm. European Journal of Law and Technology 10(1). https://ejlt.org/index.php/ejlt/article/view/674/912
Milkaite, I., & Lievens, E. (2019). The GDPR child’s age of consent for data processing across the EU – one year later (July 2019) https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8621651
Milkaite, I., & Lievens, E. (2019). The internet of toys: playing games with children’s data? In G. Mascheroni & D. Holloway (Eds.), The internet of toys: practices, affordances and the political economy of children’s smart play (pp. 285–305). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10898-4_14
Milkaite, I., Verdoodt, V., Martens, H. & Lievens, E. (2017) The General Data Protection Regulation and Children’s Rights: Questions and Answers for Legislators, DPAs, Industry, Education, Stakeholders and Civil Society. Roundtable Report
Pangrazio, L., & Selwyn, N. (2018). “It’s not like it’s life or death or whatever”: Young people’s understandings of social media data. Social Media+ Society, 4(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118787808
Piasecki, S., & Chen, J. (2022). Complying with the GDPR when vulnerable people use smart devices. International Data Privacy Law. https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipac001
Shade, L. R., & Singh, R. (2016). “Honestly, we’re not spying on kids”: School surveillance of young people’s social media. Social Media+ Society, 2(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305116680005
van der Hof, S., Lievens, E., & Milkaite, I. (2019). The protection of children’s personal data in a data-driven world : a closer look at the GDPR from a children’s rights perspective. In T. Liefaard, S. Rap, & P. Rodrigues (Eds.), Monitoring children’s rights in the Netherlands : 30 years of the UN convention on the rights of the child (pp. 77–123). Leiden University Press.
van der Hof, S., Lievens, E., Milkaite, I., Verdoodt, V., Hannema, T., & Liefaard, T. (2020). The child’s right to protection against economic exploitation in the digital world. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CHILDRENS RIGHTS, 28(4), 833–859. https://doi.org/10.1163/15718182-28040003
van der Hof, S., & Ouburg, S. (2022). “We Take Your Word For It” — A Review of Methods of Age Verification and Parental Consent in Digital Services, European Data Protection Law Review 8(1), 61 – 72. https://doi.org/10.21552/edpl/
Data Protection Authorities’ Guidance
ICO (Information Commissioner’s Office) (September 2020). Children’s code – Age appropriate design: a code of practice for online services https://ico.org.uk/for-organisations/guide-to-data-protection/ico-codes-of-practice/age-appropriate-design-a-code-of-practice-for-online-services/
Irish DPC (Data Protection Commission) (December 2021). The Fundamentals for a Child-Oriented Approach to Data Processing. https://www.dataprotection.ie/en/dpc-guidance/fundamentals-child-oriented-approach-data-processing
Case Law
European Court of Human Rights
Gaskin v. The United Kingdom (Plenary) 10454/83 1989 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-57491
McMichael v. The United Kingdom (Chamber) 16424/90 1995 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-57923
M.G. v. The United Kingdom (Second Section) 39393/98 2002 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-60642
Tsourlakis v. Greece (First Section) 50796/07 2009 Official Language in French: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-95044 Unofficial English Translation: In pp. 153-154 https://rm.coe.int/new-caselaw-06-2021/1680a2fc58
Godelli v. Italy (Second Section) 33783/09 2012 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-113460
E.S. v. Sweden (First Section) 34209/96 2002 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-60564
Bogomovola v. Russia (Third Section) 13812/09 2017 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-174420
Omorefe v. Spain (Third Section) 69339/16 2020 Official Language in French: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-203179 Unofficial English Translation: In pp. 374-376 https://rm.coe.int/new-caselaw-06-2021/1680a2fc58
Policy documents
Council of Europe, Recommendation CM/Rec(2018)7 of the Committee of Ministers, ‘Guidelines to Respect, protect and fulfil the rights of the child in the digital environment’, https://rm.coe.int/guidelines-to-respect-protect-and-fulfil-the-rights-of-the-child-in- th/16808d881a
Global Developments
Witzleb, N., Paterson, M., Wilson-Otto, J., Tolkin-Rosen, G., Marks, M. (2020). Privacy risks and harms for children and other vulnerable groups in the online environment. https://www.oaic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/11136/Report-Privacy-risks-and-harms-for-children-and-other-vulnerable-groups-online.pdf
INAI (Instituto Nacional de Transparencia, Accesso a la Información y Protección de Datos Personales) (Octubre 2020). Código de buenas prácticas para orientar el tratamiento en línea de datos personales de niñas, niños y adolescentes. https://home.inai.org.mx/wp-content/documentos/pdpdoctosguias/codigobuenaspracticasnna.pdf
- Migrants, people on move & and non-EU citizens
Academic writing
Brouwer, E. (2020). Large-scale databases and interoperability in migration and border policies: The Non-Discriminatory Approach of Data Protection. European Public Law, 26(1), 92. https://doi.org/10.54648/euro2020005
González Fuster, G., & Gutwirth, S. (2011). When “Digital Borders” Meet “Surveilled Geographical Borders”: Why the Future of EU Border Management is a Problem. In P. Burgess & S. Gutwirth (Eds.), A Threat Against Europe? Security, Migration and Integration (pp. 171–190). VUBPRESS. http://works.bepress.com/serge_gutwirth/56/
Hayes, B. (2017). Migration and data protection: Doing no harm in an age of mass displacement, mass surveillance and “big data”, International Review of the Red Cross 99, 179-209. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383117000637
Molnar, P. (2022). Territorial and Digital Borders and Migrant Vulnerability Under a Pandemic Crisis. In: Triandafyllidou, A. (eds) Migration and Pandemics. IMISCOE Research Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81210-2_3
Molnar, P. (2020). Technological Testing Grounds – Migration Management Experiments and Reflections from the Ground Up. https://edri.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Technological-Testing-Grounds.pdf
Meier, P. (2011). New Information Technologies and Their Impact on the Humanitarian Sector, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 93, No. 884, pp. 1239 – 1263 https://www.icrc.org/fr/doc/resources/international-review/review-884/review-884-all.pdf
Quintel, T. (2018). Connecting Personal Data of Third Country Nationals: Interoperability of EU Databases in the Light of the CJEU’s Case Law on Data Retention. University of Luxembourg Law Working Paper, 2. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3132506
Stachowitsch, S., & Sachseder, J. (2019). The gendered and racialized politics of risk analysis. The case of Frontex. Critical Studies on Security, 7(2), 107–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/21624887.2019.1644050
NGO Reports & articles
Statewatch & PICUM. (2019). Data Protection, Immigration Enforcement and Fundamental Rights: What the EU’s Regulations on Interoperability Mean for People with Irregular Status https://www.statewatch.org/media/documents/analyses/Data-Protection-Immigration-Enforcement-and-Fundamental-Rights-Full-Report-EN.pdf
Naranjo, D., & Molnar, P. (2020) The Privatization of Migration Control. Retrieved from https://www.cigionline.org/articles/privatization-migration-control/
Open Rights Group (2020) Immigration, Data And Technology: Needs And Capacities Of The Immigration Sector https://www.openrightsgroup.org/app/uploads/2020/11/Immigration-Data-and-Technology-Needs-and-Capacities-of-the-Immigration-Sector.pdf
Privacy International (n/a). Protecting migrants at borders and beyond https://privacyinternational.org/protecting-migrants-borders-and-beyond
Case Law
Court of Justice of the European Union
YS v. Minister voor Immigratie, Integratie en Asiel, and Minister voor Immigratie, Integratie en Asiel v M and S (Third Section) ECLI:EU:C:2014:2081 2014 https://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/document.jsf?docid=155114&doclang=EN
National
Open Rights Group & Anor, R v. The Secretary of State for the Home Department & Anor Court of Appeal (Civil Division) Appeal No: C1/2019/2726/QBACF Neutral Citation Number: [2021] EWCA Civ 800 2021 https://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/2021/800.html
Policy documents
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2018). Preventing unlawful profiling today and in the future: a guide. Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2811/801635
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2018). Under watchful eyes: biometrics, EU IT systems and fundamental rights. Publications Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2811/29
ICRC Rules on Personal Data Protection https://shop.icrc.org/icrc-rules-on-personal-data-protection-pdf-en.html
Hennebry, J., H. KC and K. Williams, 2021. Gender and Migration Data: A Guide for Evidence-based, Gender-responsive Migration Governance. International Organization for Migration (IOM). https://publications.iom.int/books/gender-and-migration-data-guide-evidence-based-gender-responsive-migration-governance
Global Developments
Africa Migration Data Network (AMDN) https://gmdac.iom.int/africa-migration-data-network-amdn
- Minorities
Academic Writings
Marwick, A., Fontaine, C., & Boyd, D. (2017). “Nobody sees it, nobody gets mad”: Social Media, privacy, and personal responsibility among low-SES youth. Social Media+ Society, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305117710455
NGO Reports & articles
EDRi (2021) Romani rights and biometric mass surveillance. https://edri.org/our-work/roma-rights-and-biometric-mass-surveillance/
Case Law
European Court of Human Rights
Sinan Işık v. Turkey (Second Section) 21924/05 2010 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-97087
Policy documents
European Commission Subgroup on Equality Data (2021). Guidance note on the collection and use of equality data based on racial or ethnic origin https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/guidance_note_on_the_collection_and_use_of_equality_data_based_on_racial_or_ethnic_origin_final.pdf
- Patients
Academic writings
Brown, C.L. (2012), Health-Care Data Protection and Biometric Authentication Policies: Comparative Culture and Technology Acceptance in China and in the United States. Review of Policy Research, 29, 141-159. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-1338.2011.00546.x
Courbier, S., Dimond, R., & Bros-Facer, V. (2019). Share and protect our health data: an evidence based approach to rare disease patients’ perspectives on data sharing and data protection-quantitative survey and recommendations. Orphanet journal of rare diseases, 14(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13023-019-1123-4
Tat, E., Bhatt, D. L., & Rabbat, M. G. (2020). Addressing bias: artificial intelligence in cardiovascular medicine. The Lancet Digital Health, 2(12), e635-e636. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2589-7500(20)30249-1
NGO Reports & articles
EDRi, (2022). E-Evidence regulation: Why it matters for medical confidentiality? https://edri.org/our-work/e-evidence-regulation-why-it-matters-for-medical-confidentiality/
Data Protection Authorities’ Guidance
European Data Protection Board Guidelines 03/2020 on the processing of data concerning health for the purpose of scientific research in the context of the COVID-19 outbreak https://edpb.europa.eu/sites/default/files/files/file1/edpb_guidelines_202003_healthdatascientificresearchcovid19_en.pdf
European Data Protection Board Guidelines 04/2020 on the use of location data and contact tracing tools in the context of the COVID-19 outbreak https://edpb.europa.eu/sites/default/files/files/file1/edpb_guidelines_20200420_contact_tracing_covid_with_annex_en.pdf
Case Law
European Court of Human Rights
Z v. Finland Court (Chamber) 22009/93 1997 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-58033
M.S. v. Sweden Court (Chamber) 20837/92 1997 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-58177
I v. Finland Court (Fourth Section) 20511/03 2008 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-87510
K.H. And Others v. Slovakia Court (Fourth Section) 32881/04 2009 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-92418
Szuluk v. The United Kingdom Court (Fourth Section) 36936/05 2009 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-92767
Y.Y v. Russia (First Section) 20113/07 2008 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-89864
Anne-Marie Andersson v. Sweden (Chamber) 72/1996/691/883 1997 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-58086
L.L v. France (Chamber) 19324/02 2006 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=003-1636723-1714833
Mitkus v. Latvia (Third Section) 7259/03 2012 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=001-113648
Avilkina and Others v. Russia (First Section) 1585/09 2013 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=002-7612
Radu v. The Republic of Moldova (Third Section) 50073/07 2014 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-142398
Surikov v. Ukraine (Fifth Section) 41788/06 2017 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-170462
Dagregorio and Mosconi v. France (Fifth Section) 65714/11 2017 Official Language in French: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-175036 Unofficial English Translation: In pp. 289-290
- and Marper v. The United Kingdom (Chamber) 30562/04and 30566/04 2008 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-90051
L.H v. Latvia (Fourth Section) 52019/07 2014 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-142673
- Persons with disabilities
Academic writings
Cobigo, V., Czechowski, K., Chalghoumi, H., Gauthier-Beaupre, A., Assal, H., Jutai, J., … & Bah, F. (2020). Protecting the privacy of technology users who have cognitive disabilities: Identifying areas for improvement and targets for change. Journal of Rehabilitation and Assistive Technologies Engineering, 7, pp. 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055668320950195
Wang, Y., Price, C.E. (2022). Accessible Privacy. In: Knijnenburg, B.P., Page, X., Wisniewski, P., Lipford, H.R., Proferes, N., Romano, J. (eds) Modern Socio-Technical Perspectives on Privacy. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82786-1_13
Weber, M. C. (2017). Protection for privacy under the United Nations Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. Laws, 6(3).https://doi.org/10.3390/laws6030010
NGO Reports
EDRi, (2019), Why Privacy is particularly crucial for people with disabilities? https://edri.org/our-work/why-privacy-is-particularly-crucial-for-people-with-disabilities/
Center for Democracy & Technology (2022). Ableism And Disability Discrimination In New Surveillance Technologies: How new surveillance technologies in education, policing, health care, and the workplace disproportionately harm disabled people. https://cdt.org/insights/ableism-and-disability-discrimination-in-new-surveillance-technologies-how-new-surveillance-technologies-in-education-policing-health-care-and-the-workplace-disproportionately-harm-disabled-people/
- Elderly people
Academic writings
Elueze, I., & Quan-Haase, A. (2018). Privacy attitudes and concerns in the digital lives of older adults: Westin’s privacy attitude typology revisited. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(10), 1372-1391. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764218787026
Quan‐Haase, A., & Ho, D. (2020). Online privacy concerns and privacy protection strategies among older adults in East York, Canada. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 71(9), 1089-1102. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.24364
Ray, H., Wolf, F., Kuber, R., & Aviv, A. J. (2020). “Warn Them” or “Just Block Them”?: Investigating Privacy Concerns Among Older and Working Age Adults. UMBC Student Collection. https://doi.org/10.2478/popets-2021-0016
Van den Broeck, E., Poels, K., & Walrave, M. (2015). Older and wiser? Facebook use, privacy concern, and privacy protection in the life stages of emerging, young, and middle adulthood. Social Media+ Society, 1(2) https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305115616149
Zeissig, E. M., Lidynia, C., Vervier, L., Gadeib, A., & Ziefle, M. (2017, July). Online privacy perceptions of older adults. In International Conference on Human Aspects of IT for the Aged Population (pp. 181-200). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58536-9_16
- Consumers
Academic writings
Sartor, G. (2020). New Aspects And Challenges In Consumer Protection – Digital Services And Artificial Intelligence, Policy Department for Economic, Scientific and Quality of Life Policies Directorate-General for Internal Policies https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2020/648790/IPOL_STU(2020)648790_EN.pdf
van Ooijen, I., & Vrabec, H. U. (2019). Does the GDPR enhance consumers’ control over personal data? An analysis from a behavioural perspective. Journal of consumer policy, 42(1), 91-107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10603-018-9399-7
Wang, E. S. T. (2019). Role of privacy legislations and online business brand image in consumer perceptions of online privacy risk. Journal of theoretical and applied electronic commerce research, 14(2), 59-69. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-18762019000200106
Liyanaarachchi, G., Deshpande, S., & Weaven, S. (2020). Market-oriented corporate digital responsibility to manage data vulnerability in online banking. International Journal of Bank Marketing https://doi.org/10.1108/IJBM-06-2020-0313
Bright, L. F., Logan, K., & Lim, H. S. (2022). Social Media Fatigue and Privacy: An Exploration of Antecedents to Consumers’ Concerns regarding the Security of Their Personal Information on Social Media Platforms. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/15252019.2022.2051097
NGO Reports & Articles
BEUC (2021). EU Consumer Protection 2.0. Structural asymmetries in digital consumer markets https://www.beuc.eu/publications/beuc-x-2021-018_eu_consumer_protection.0_0.pdf
BEUC (2021). EU Consumer Protection 2.0. The Regulatory Gap: Consumer protection in the digital economy https://www.beuc.eu/publications/beuc-x-2021-116_the_regulatory_gap-consumer_protection_in_the_digital_economy.pdf
BEUC (2022). EU Consumer Protection 2.0. Protecting fairness and consumer choice in a digital economy https://www.beuc.eu/publications/eu-consumer-protection-20-protecting-fairness-and-consumer-choice-digital-economy/html
Data Protection Authorities’ Guidance
European Data Protection Board Guidelines 8/2020 on the targeting of social media users https://edpb.europa.eu/system/files/2021-04/edpb_guidelines_082020_on_the_targeting_of_social_media_users_en.pdf
European Data Protection Board Guidelines 2/2019 on the processing of personal data under Article 6(1)(b) GDPR in the context of the provision of online services to data subjects https://edpb.europa.eu/sites/default/files/files/file1/edpb_guidelines-art_6-1-b-adopted_after_public_consultation_en.pdf
Case Law
European Court of Human Rights
Breyer v. Germany (Fifth Section) 50001/12 2020 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-200442
Court of Justice of the European Union
Maximilian Schrems v. Facebook Ireland Limited (Third Chamber) ECLI:EU:C:2018:37 2018 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62016CJ0498&from=GA
Fashion ID GmbH & Co. KG v. Verbraucherzentrale NRW eV (Second Chamber) ECLI:EU:C:2018:1039 2018 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62017CC0040&from=EN
Bundesverband der Verbraucherzentralen und Verbraucherverbände — Verbraucherzentrale Bundesverband eV v. Planet49 GmbH (Grand Chamber) ECLI:EU:C:2019:801 2019 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:62017CJ0673&from=EN
- Employees
Academic writings
Suder, S. (2021). Processing employees’ personal data during the Covid-19 pandemic. European Labour Law Journal, 12(3), 322-337. https://doi.org/10.1177/2031952520978994
Keane, E. (2018). The GDPR and Employee’s Privacy: Much Ado but Nothing New. King’s Law Journal, 29(3), 354-363. https://doi.org/10.1080/09615768.2018.1555065
Kullmann, M. (2018). Platform work, algorithmic decision-making, and EU gender equality law. International Journal of Comparative Labour Law and Industrial Relations, 34(1), 1-21. https://ssrn.com/abstract=
Tolsdorf, J., Reinhardt, D., & Iacono, L. L. (2022). Employees’ privacy perceptions: exploring the dimensionality and antecedents of personal data sensitivity and willingness to disclose. Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies, 2022(2), 68-94. https://doi.org/10.2478/popets-2022-0036
Data Protection Authorities’ Guidance
Article 29 Working Party Opinion 2/2017 on data processing at work Adopted on 8 June 2017 https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/article29/items/610169/en
Case Law
European Court of Human Rights
Bărbulescu V. Romania Court (Fourth Section) 61496/08 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-159906
Copland v. The United Kingdom Court (Fourth Section) 62617/00 2007 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-79996
Libert v. France Court (Fifth Section) 588/13 2018 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-181273
Antović And Mirković V. Montenegro Court (Second Section) 70838/13 2017 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-178904
López Ribalda And Others v. Spain Court (Grand Chamber) (Applications nos. 1874/13 and 8567/13) 2019 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-197098
Köpke v. Germany (Fifth Section) 420/07 2010 http://www.bailii.org/eu/cases/ECHR/2010/1725.html
Radu v. The Republic of Moldova (Third Section) 50073/07 2014 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-142398
Surikov v. Ukraine (Fifth Section) 41788/06 2017 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-170462
Court of Justice of the European Union
Worten — Equipamentos para o Lar SA v Autoridade para as Condições de Trabalho (ACT) (Third Chamber) ECLI:EU:C:2013:355 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/
- Detainees
Data Protection Authorities’ Guidance
European Data Protection Board Guidelines 05/2022 on the use of facial recognition technology in the area of law enforcement https://edpb.europa.eu/system/files/2022-05/edpb-guidelines_202205_frtlawenforcement_en_1.pdf
European Data Protection Board Recommendations 01/2021 on the adequacy referential under the Law Enforcement Directive https://edpb.europa.eu/sites/default/files/files/file1/recommendations012021onart.36led.pdf_en.pdf
Case Law
European Court of Human Rights
Marper V. The United Kingdom Grand Chamber (Applications nos. 30562/04and 30566/04) 2008 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-90051
Aycaguer V. France Court (Fifth Section) 8806/12 2017 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-175007
M.K. V. France Court (Fifth Section) 19522/09 2013 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-119075
R.E. v. the United Kingdom Court (Fourth Section) 62498/11 2015 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=001-158159
Gaughran v. the United Kingdom 45245/15 2020 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=002-12731
Matwiejczuk v. Poland (Fourth Section) 37641/97 2003 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-61482
Kennedy v. The United Kingdom (Fourth Section) 26839/05 2010 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-98473
Perry v. The United Kingdom (Third Section) 63737/00 2003 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-61228
Zaichenko v. Ukraine (Fifth Section) 29875/02 2007 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-83417
P.N. v. Germany (Fifth Section) 74440/17 2020 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-202758
Allan v. The United Kingdom (Fourth Section) 48539/99 2002 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-60713
Wisse v. France (Second Section) 71611/01 2005 Official Language in French: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-71735 Unofficial English Translation: In pp. 117-118 https://rm.coe.int/new-caselaw-06-2021/1680a2fc58
Izmestyev v. Russia (Third Section) 74141/10 2019 Official Language in French: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-195567 Unofficial English Translation: In pp. 342-344 https://rm.coe.int/new-caselaw-06-2021/1680a2fc58
- Other
ACLU (2022) In Big Win, Settlement Ensures Clearview AI Complies With Groundbreaking Illinois Biometric Privacy Law https://www.aclu-il.org/en/press-releases/big-win-settlement-ensures-clearview-ai-complies-groundbreaking-illinois-biometric
Non-discrimination and data protection
Academic writings
Kamiran, F., Calders, T., & Pechenizkiy, M. (2013) Techniques for Discrimination-Free Predictive Models, in Custers et al. (eds) Discrimination and Privacy in the Information Society, Heidelberg: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-30487-3_12
Kasy, M., & Abebe, R. (2021, March). Fairness, equality, and power in algorithmic decision-making. In Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, 576-586. https://doi.org/10.1145/3442188.3445919
Mesch, G. S., & Dodel, M. (2018). Low self-control, information disclosure, and the risk of online fraud. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(10), 1356-1371 https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764218787854
Patton, D. U., Brunton, D. W., Dixon, A., Miller, R. J., Leonard, P., & Hackman, R. (2017). Stop and frisk online: Theorizing everyday racism in digital policing in the use of social media for identification of criminal conduct and associations. Social Media+ Society, 3(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305117733344
Krupiy, Tetyana. “Why the Proposed Artificial Intelligence Regulation Does Not Deliver on the Promise to Protect Individuals from Harm.” European Law Blog, 2021. https://europeanlawblog.eu/2021/07/23/why-the-proposed-artificial-intelligence-regulation-does-not-deliver-on-the-promise-to-protect-individuals-from-harm/
Krupiy, Tetyana (Tanya). “A Vulnerability Analysis: Theorising the Impact of Artificial Intelligence Decision-Making Processes on Individuals, Society and Human Diversity from a Social Justice Perspective.” Computer Law and Security Review 38 (2020): 105429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clsr.2020.105429
Tzanou, Maria. “The Future of Eu Data Privacy Law: Towards a More Egalitarian Data Privacy.” Journal of International and Comparative Law 7, no. 2 (2020): 449–70. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3710528
Case law
Court of Justice of the European Union
Heinz Huber v. Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Grand Chamber) ECLI:EU:C:2008:724 https://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/document.jsf;jsessionid=8DD1C951C52E367EC885CE5EC4916346?text=&docid=76077&pageIndex=0&doclang=en&mode=lst&dir=&occ=first&part=1&cid=897854